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Glossary

  

A la mode (Pronounced ah lah MOHD). A French term that means "in the manner (or style) of". The French use this term when referring to the method or style in which a dish is prepared or garnished. The Americanized term refers to having a scoop of ice cream with a slice of pie.

Almond Paste - Almond paste is a combination of equal parts ground blanched almonds and sugar, mixed with glucose, corn syrup or egg whites. It is pliable with a sweet almond flavor and grainy texture. Sold in cans or tubes. Almond paste used in pastry making and confectionery to cover cakes and pastries, as well as forming into different shapes and figures. Unused almond paste are wrapped in plastic and refrigerated or else frozen.

Angel Food Cake - Sometimes referred to as Angel Cake because of its airy lightness said to be the "food of the angels". This cake has no egg yolks, fat, or artificial leaveners so it relies totally on stiffly beaten egg whites for leavening. Its sole ingredients are egg whites, cream of tartar, sugar, flour, salt and flavoring (such as extracts). Angel Food Cake has the highest sugar content of all the sponge cakes. This added sugar support and stabilize the whipped egg whites. Because the egg whites give the cake, its volume and structure, care taken when adding them to the dry ingredients so they do not deflate. Traditionally baked in a ring-shaped tube pan. Place the baked cake upside down to cool, to prevent it from falling and sticking to the pan. Usually served plain or with fresh fruit, fruit purees, and/or whipped cream. A moist, fluffy, feather-light, delicate cake that is fat and cholesterol free.

Bain Marie or Water Bath-Bain Marie (pronounced BAN-mah-REE) means "Marie's bath" in French and is the French term for water bath. Some delicate foods, such as custards, mousses, cheesecakes, sauces, puddings, need a gentle, moist and constant insulated heat that is away from the intense direct heat of the oven or stove. A Bain Marie accomplishes this task.
This technique starts with a large shallow pan (usually a roasting pan of some sort) that is big enough to hold a smaller pan, bowl, or dish (es) filled with a delicate food. If you are baking several small individual dishes, say individual soufflés, it is best to first line the large roasting pan with a folded clean dishtowel. This prevents the dishes from moving around while they bake. In addition, if using a spring form pan, first wrap aluminum foil around the outside of the pan to prevent any leakage when placed in the Bain Marie. Once you have placed the smaller dish inside the large roasting pan, carefully pour warm to hot water into the larger pan until it reaches about halfway up the outside of the smaller dish containing the food. Then place pans in the oven and this technique prevents the delicate food from burning, drying out, or curdling. Occasionally check the water level during the baking time, adding more hot water as necessary.

Bake Blind - If you have a filling that does not need to be baked, or a very juicy berry filling, or one that does not need much baking, it may be necessary to pre-bake or "bake blind" the unfilled pie or tart shell. This may involve either partial or complete baking of the shell. First, roll out your pastry and placing it in your tart or pie pan. The bottom of the unbaked shell evenly pierced with the tines of a fork. Line, the unbaked shell with aluminum foil or parchment paper, weighted down with rice, beans or pie weights. This lining and weighing down of the shell will prevent the shell from "puffing up" while it bakes. Place the shell, in the preheated oven and bake until set. Remove the weights and lining, if necessary, bake the shell further until it is brown and crisp. Once cooled, the shell can be glazed with an egg white, apricot preserves or even melted chocolate to prevent the filling from seeping into the pie shell and making it soggy. Place the filling into the prepared shell and further bake if called for in your recipe.

Baking - Defined as cooking food in an enclosed space, usually an oven, with dry heat. Over time the term baking has come to encompass those items made with flour i.e. breads, cakes, cookies, etc. The term 'roasting' used when cooking meat and poultry. Some countries, such as France, have further divided baking into "breads" and "sweet and savory pastries."

Baking Powder/Baking Soda - Both baking powder and baking soda are chemical leavening agents that cause batters to rise when baked. The leaveners enlarges the bubbles, which are already present in the batter produced through creaming of ingredients. When a recipe contains baking powder and baking soda, the baking powder does most of the leavening. Baking soda will always require and acidic ingredient whereas baking powder already has an acid added, in most cases crème of tartar.

Batter - The terms 'batter' and 'dough' often times used interchangeably as the main difference between the two is only in their consistencies. That is, a batter is thinner in consistency than a dough. The name 'batter' comes from the French word 'battre' meaning 'to beat'. This uncooked, semi-liquid, pourable mixture whose main ingredients are flour, eggs, and milk and oftentimes includes sugar, butter, and a flavoring is used not only to make breads and pastries but as a coating for foods that are to be deep fried. Preparing batters involves combining the flour with the liquid until achieving a smooth mixture. How thick the batter is depends on its use i.e. thick batters for cakes, quick breads, and some fried foods; thinner batters for pancakes, crêpes, waffles, and puddings.

Batterie de Cuisine - (Pronounced 'bat-TREE duh kwih-ZEEN'). French term meaning 'the complete set of kitchen utensils'. This includes, but not limited to, pots and pans, bakeware, cookware, knives and all other equipment and utensils for cooking and the making of desserts, pastries, and confections.

Beat - Whether done using an electric mixer or by hand with a fork, spoon, or whisk, to 'beat' is to vigorously mix, blend, or stir a mixture in a circular motion. This technique changes the consistency of the ingredient(s), from the smoothing, mixing and aerating the ingredients for a cake batter, to incorporating air into egg whites or sweet cream. Rule of Thumb- 100 strokes by hand will equal about one minute with an electric mixer.

Blend or Blending - A technique where combining two or more ingredients until they are smooth and equally distributed throughout the mixture. A spoon, fork, rubber spatula, whisk, electric mixer with paddle attachment, food processor, blender, or even your bare hands used for this technique. Blending differs from beating in that its sole purpose is to combine the ingredients, not to incorporate air into the mixture.

Breads or Loaves - A thick batter that is a cross between a cake and a bread. Can be sweet or savory. Baked in a rectangular baking pan available in many sizes. To test for doneness, insert a toothpick in the center of the cake or quick bread. If there is wet batter still on the toothpick, it needs more time in the oven. The cake or quick bread ready to pull out of the oven, when the toothpick comes out clean.

Breakfast - Defined as the first meal of the day and literally means, breaking the fast of the night. It was during the 15th century that certain foods were created, and served, only at breakfast and this tradition continues even today. Today the foods eaten at home for breakfast have a lot to do with convenience, as people do not have the time to make and eat a leisurely breakfast. Bread-like items are popular breakfast foods during the workweek: bagels, muffins, scones, cereal or muesli, with a cup of tea or coffee. Weekends are when the so-called "big breakfast" or "English breakfast" served where eggs take center stage as well as bacon, sausages, tomatoes, toast, jams and preserves.

Some breakfast foods and their countries of origin are:

  • North America- quick breads, especially muffins
  • France- croissant
  • Scandinavia - Danish pastries
  • Germany - Kugelhopf (a rich yeast-leavened cake, similar to brioche, containing raisins and lemon peel with almonds on top.)
  • Scotland and Ireland - baps (a soft roll that contains butter or some other type of fat to produce tender baked goods.)
  • England- crumpet (a perforated pancake-type baked good made with yeast and cooked on a griddle in a ring mold.)
  • Spain- churros (a deep-fried sweet dough, much like a doughnut, coated with confectioners' sugar or a cinnamon/sugar mixture when still hot.)


Brownies - classified as a bar cookie and are a cross between a cake and a cookie. Their origin is somewhat sketchy but enjoyed in the United States since the 19th century. The name "brownie" refers to their dark brown color. That intense chocolate flavor is what sets the brownie apart from other cookies.

Butter - produced by churning cream until the fats separate from the liquid (buttermilk) and the butter is in a semi-solid state. Most butter sold today is from cow's milk, but butter also be produced from the milk of buffalo, camel, goat, ewe, and mares. Butter comes in two forms salted and unsalted (sweet). The characteristics to look for in a good butter at room temperature are that it is dense with no air bubbles, should not be lumpy, sticky or brittle, and no sweating.

Butter Cakes - Contain fat (butter, margarine, shortening) and rely on a chemical leaveners (baking powder/baking soda) for their rise. They are flavorful, and have a good texture and volume. The American-style butter cake evolved from the English pound cake recipe of 1 pound of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound of butter, and 1 pound of eggs. The French called the pound cake "quatre-quarts" which translates to four-quarters, meaning 1/4 of the recipe is flour, 1/4 sugar, 1/4 butter and 1/4 eggs. The first pound cakes had no artificial leaveners and volume was obtained through the mixing (aeration) of the batter. Other examples of butter cakes are the white and yellow cake, coffee cakes, teacakes, and fruitcakes. Some butter cakes are rich and flavorful enough alone (fruitcakes, teacakes) or with a sifting of confectioners’ sugar or drizzled with a glaze. Others, layer or sheet butter cakes, taste even better with a layer of frosting, lemon curd, jam and preserves, nuts, or even ice cream.

Buttercream - a name that encompasses a broad range of icings that can differ by person, city, region, or country. They can be quick or complicated to make depending on whether they are cooked or uncooked. Buttercreams may contain powdered sugar, white granulated sugar, whole eggs, egg whites, egg yolks, unsalted butter, shortening, milk or cream, pastry cream, fondant, and various flavorings (extract, purée, chocolate, and liqueur). Generally, buttercream is a light and creamy smooth icing used to fill, frost and decorate (flowers, leaves, etc.) all kinds of cakes and pastries.

Some cooked Buttercreams are meringue-based where unsalted butter beaten into firmly beaten egg whites that have had hot sugar syrup added to them. This produces a rich, yet light buttercream.

French Buttercream contains beaten whole eggs and/or egg yolks, to which a sugar syrup added and then unsalted butter.

Confectioners' Frosting is an uncooked buttercream icing that contains powdered (icing) sugar, unsalted butter, milk and flavoring.

Buttermilk - Has a nice thick creamy texture with a rich tangy buttery taste that makes baked goods tender. It is commercially made by adding a bacterium to whole, skim, or low-fat milk. However, in the past it was the liquid left over after churning butter. You can make your own by adding 1 tablespoon of white distilled vinegar, cider vinegar, or lemon juice to 1 cup of milk. Let stand 5 to 10 minutes before using.

Cakes - Broadly defined, cakes are any flat, round disk of food. The earliest cakes believed to come from ancient Egypt, were sweet breads. Cake recipes that are similar to today and contain beaten eggs date from the 17th Century. Most of us think of cakes as a sweet, baked confection made with or without fat (butter, oil, or shortening) and usually containing a mixture or batter of flour, sugar, eggs, flavorings and sometimes another leaveners such as baking powder or baking soda. The mixture is then poured into a pan and baked until the exterior is firm with a crust, and the interior sets with a crumb.

Chiffon Cake - A moist and tender, light and airy cake that has the richness of a butter cake but the springy texture of a sponge cake. Chiffon Cakes developed in the 1920's as an easy variation to the angel food cake but did not appear in print until the 1940's. Similar to a butter cake in preparation and formula (oil is used instead of butter); it relies on the whipped egg whites for its leavening, along with baking powder. A quick and easy batter to make as there is no creaming of the fat and sugar because the fat is in liquid form (vegetable oil). Mix the dry ingredients and then the oil, egg yolks, water, and flavoring. The egg whites beaten separately until stiff peaks: and then folded in to the batter. The batter is quite thin: traditionally baked in a tube pan.

Chocolate - Chocolate comes from the Aztec word xocolatl, which means bitter water. The tropical tree from which cocoa and chocolate originated called Theobroma, which translates to "food of the gods". All chocolate begins with tropical cocoa beans. The flavor and quality of the chocolate depends on the type(s) of beans used, how they are harvested and fermented, the roasting procedures, quality and amounts of ingredients added, and the time of conching.

Clarified Butter - Also called drawn butter, is unsalted butter that has the milk solids and water removed so all that remains is pure liquid golden-yellow butterfat. The advantages of this type of butter is its long keeping quality (several months refrigerated) and its high smoke point (used in frying without burning). To make clarified butter gently melt unsalted butter over low heat until the butter breaks down and three layers form. 1 pound of whole butter will yield 12 ounces clarified butter.

Clotted (Devonshire) Cream - A clotted cream produced commercially in Devon, Cornwall, and Somerset England. A thick, rich, yellowish cream with a scalded or cooked flavor that is made by heating unpasteurized milk until a thick layer of cream sits on top. Cool the milk, and skim off a layer of cream. Clotted cream has 55-60 percent fat content and is so thick it does not need whipping. Traditionally served with scones and fruit.

Coat a Spoon (nappe) - A technique used mainly as a way to test when an egg-based custard or sauce ready for use. Place the spoon in the custard and raise the spoon. The egg-based sauce will stay in place on the spoon, even when you draw a line with your finger through the middle of the custard.

Cocoa Butter - Cocoa butter is the ivory-colored natural fat of the cocoa bean extracted during the manufacturing process of producing chocolate and cocoa powder. It has a very subtle mellow flavor that gives chocolate its creamy smooth, melt-in-your-mouth texture. The quality of the cocoa butter depends on the quality of the bean it came from and the process of separating it from the chocolate liquor. Cocoa butter is solid at room temperature but it has a low melting point (just below body temperature) and it does change from a solid to a liquid quickly (i.e. sharp melting point.)

Cocoa Powder - Cocoa powder is made when chocolate liquor is pressed to remove three quarters of its cocoa butter. The remaining cocoa solids processed to make fine unsweetened cocoa powder. There are two types of unsweetened cocoa powder: natural and Dutch-processed. Dutch-processed or alkalized unsweetened cocoa powder treated with an alkali to neutralize its acids. Because it is neutral and does not react with baking soda, used in recipes calling for baking powder, unless there are other acidic ingredients in sufficient quantities used. It has a reddish-brown color, mild flavor, and is easy to dissolve in liquids. Natural unsweetened cocoa powder tastes very bitter and gives a deep chocolate flavor to baked goods. Its intense flavor make it well suited for use in brownies, cookies and some chocolate cakes. When natural cocoa (an acid) used in recipes calling for baking soda (an alkali), it creates a leavening action that causes the batter to rise when placed in the oven.

Confectioners’ Sugar - (Also known as powdered or icing sugar) is granulated sugar that has been ground to a powder with cornstarch added to prevent lumping and crystallization. It comes in 4X, 6X and 10X but 10X is the one generally found in stores. 10X means that the granulated sugar has been processed ten times. Use confectioners’ sugar in meringues, icings, confections, and some sweet pastry.

Cookies - "Cookie" comes from the Dutch word "koekje or koekie" and refers to a small cake. 'Cookies' in North America defined as small, sweet, flat or slightly raised baked goods. In the United Kingdom, they are biscuits; in Spain: called galletas; in Germany: called kels; and in Italy: called biscotti. Every country has its favorite. United States and Canada it is chocolate chip, in the U.K. its shortbread, in France its sablés and macaroons, and in Italy biscotti.

Cornstarch (Corn flour) - it is a fine white powder that comes from the inner grain (endosperm) of corn and is used in baking (can replace some of the flour in recipes to produce a finer textured cookie or cake) as well as in cooking (as a thickener for gravies and sauces). The British term 'corn flour' often used synonymously with the North American term 'cornstarch'.

Couverture - Couverture Chocolate is a high-quality chocolate that contains extra cocoa butter (32-39%). The higher percentage of cocoa butter, combined with the processing, gives the chocolate more sheen, firmer "snap" when broken, and a creamy mellow flavor. Professional us couverture chocolates for dipping, coating, molding and garnishing. When melted the chocolate becomes very fluid, giving a smooth, thin coating to dipped truffles and candies. Temper the chocolate before use to stabilize the cocoa butter.

Cream - The fat that rises to the top of whole milk. It has a smooth, satiny texture labeled according to its butterfat content (heavy to light). Some creams labeled "ultra-pasteurized" means the cream has been briefly heated to kill the bacteria that cause cream to sour. This process gives the cream a longer shelf life, but since artificial emulsifiers added to restore its whipping qualities, taste is affected.

Cream of Tartar (Potassium Tartrate) - Lining the inside of wine caskets after fermentation is a white sediment (tartaric acid). Once this sediment removed, purified, and ground, it becomes a fine white powder, call cream of tartar. Cream of tartar (an acid) used in making commercial baking powders, one-part baking soda to two parts cream of tartar. It is also added when beating egg whites as it stabilizes the whites and gives them volume and strength. The rule of thumb when beating egg whites is to add 1/8 teaspoon cream of tartar for each egg white. When beating the egg whites, add the cream of tartar to the whites once they are foamy. You may also notice that some cake recipes call for cream of tartar. Used to give cakes more volume with a finer whiter crumb. In frostings, used to give added creaminess. Also used in both confectionery and sugar syrups to prevent crystallization. Cream of tartar best found in the spice section of most grocery stores and should be stored in a cool dry place.

Cream Puff - Catherine de Medici's (an Italian who married France's Henry II) pastry chef invented choux pastry in the 1540s. Since then this pastry has been the springboard for many desserts. One favorite is the cream puff, which is a hollow round of crisp choux pastry split in half, filled with a cream or custard, and dusted with powdered sugar. Two other desserts closely related to the cream puff are the Eclair (long finger-shaped pastry filled with cream and glazed with chocolate) and the Profiterole (small puffs of choux pastry split and filled, with cream or ice cream and topped with chocolate.)

Creaming or 'to Cream' - This mixing or beating technique not only combines ingredients to make a uniform mixture, but also incorporates air into this mixture. A whisk, wooden spoon, or electric mixer with paddle attachment used. The butter should be at room temperature so it incorporates the sugar sufficiently to produce a smooth and creamy batter that is light and fluffy. Follow your recipe's instructions, as this step can vary in length from seconds to minutes, depending on how much air incorporated into the batter so it rises properly in the oven.

Crème Anglaise - A French term for a pourable vanilla custard sauce served hot or cold with desserts. Also used as a base for making ice cream. Consists of whole milk flavored with a vanilla bean, sugar and egg yolks. A rich sauce can accommodate other flavors such as liqueurs, melted chocolate and fruit purées.

Crème Fraiche - Pronounced 'krem fresh'. It is a thick and smooth heavy cream with a wonderfully rich and velvety texture. This matured cream has a nutty, slightly sour taste produced by culturing pasteurized cream with a special bacterium. In France, where it originated, the cream is unpasteurized so it naturally contains the bacteria necessary to make crème fraiche. The butterfat content varies (usually 30%), as there is no set standard so you will find every brand tastes a little differently.

Crème Patissiere - Also known as Pastry Cream. It is a rich, thick custard made from a mixture of milk, eggs, sugar, flour and cornstarch (a thickener) cooked on the stove. Vanilla beans, liqueurs, chocolate, coffee and fruit purées are some complementary flavorings added to pastry creams. It is a very versatile cream used to fill cakes, cream puffs, eclairs, Napoleons, tarts, and other pastries. For a lighter pastry cream, fold in heavy whipping cream.

Crumb - The interior of a cake defined as the "crumb." A crumb's interior structure can be open-textured, or close-textured depending on the recipe's proper ingredient measurements, the recipe's proper mixing methods and the recipes proper baking time.

Cupcake - The name given to a small individual cake baked in a cup-shaped mold (usually a muffin pan). For ease of removal, fluted paper or foil cup liners used. The name 'cupcake' originated in Britain and North America in the 19th century, believed to come from the American system of measuring in 'cups'. Just as the name "pound cake" was derived from using one pound of sugar, butter, flour, and eggs, "cupcake" comes from using 'a cup' to measure the ingredients. The first recipe for cupcakes was in a book by Miss Leslie, dated from 1828, which called for one large coffee cup of cream or rich milk, one-cup butter, two cups sugar, four cups flour. Bake the batter in small tins.

Curdle - This can happen because too much liquid, albeit eggs or milk, are added at once or added too quickly. It can also happen when the ingredients added are not the same temperature as the other ingredients. Solving this problem by simply continuing with the recipe and adding the flour. Alternatively, remedied by just beating the mixture until it comes together again. The third way is to heat the mixture so that all the ingredients are the same temperature and then beating.
Curdling can also happen either when making sauces, or custards when heating mixtures containing eggs, or when adding a hot liquid into an egg mixture. To prevent this from happening always heat egg mixtures over low heat and stir gently but continuously. When adding a hot liquid to an egg mixture be sure to "temper" first, that is, add a little of the hot liquid into the egg mixture to warm the eggs up. Then you can safely add the rest of the hot liquid.
In addition, when baking a dessert that contains a custard sauce, such as a bread pudding, it is sometimes advisable to place the dessert in a water bath to prevent the sauce from overheating and curdling.

Cut or Cutting In - A technique used in pastry making (scones, biscuits) involving the mixing of a cold solid fat (butter, margarine, shortening) into dry ingredients (flour mixture) until the mixture is blended but still contains small flour-coated pieces of cold fat. Combining of the cold fat and dry ingredients done quickly and with a light hand so the fat does not melt. For light and fluffy scones or biscuits, the fat should not become too soft or cut too fine. Cut the cold fat into the dry ingredients using the following tools: pastry blender, two knives, fingers, food processor, or an electric mixer with the paddle attachment.

Desserts - A sweet course, served at the end of the meal. It includes cakes, confections, cookies, custards, fruit, ice creams, mousses, pastries, pies, puddings, sorbets, soufflés, and tarts. The dessert course can also include cheese. Dessert comes from the French word 'desservir' meaning 'to remove the dishes' or 'clear the table'. Once the table is cleared, the dessert, either fruit or sweets is served. 'Dessert' replaced the word 'banquet' which was the English name given to this course during the 18th century. Trivia - 'Desserts' is 'stressed' spelled backwards. Quote "Life is uncertain. Eat dessert first." - Ernestine Ulmer.

Dough - Pronounced 'DOH'. The terms 'dough' and 'batter'' are oftentimes used interchangeably as the main difference between the two is only in their consistencies. That is, a dough is thicker in consistency than a batter. This is because a dough normally has less fat, liquid and sugar than a batter.
A dough is defined as an unbaked mixture of flour and a liquid(s) (water, milk and/or eggs), that when combined with other ingredients (i.e. sugar, fat, salt and a leavener) produces a mass that is normally stiff enough to hold its shape when kneaded and/or rolled. There are breads, biscuits, and pastries that fall under the classification of doughs and they can vary in consistency depending on their ratio of flour to liquid.

Drizzle - Breads, coffee cakes, cookies, cakes are some of the baked goods that can be enhanced by a drizzle of glaze, icing, or melted chocolate. Other times, a baked good is drizzled with melted butter just before placing it into the oven. Drizzle means slowly pouring a very thin stream of liquid in a random pattern over the surface of food. The tines of a fork, paper cone, pastry bag, squeeze bottle used to accomplish this task.

Dust or Dusting - Used to lightly coat: food, (cakes, pastries, and/or confections) pans, or surfaces with a powdery substance such as flour, confectioners (powdered or icing) sugar, cocoa powder, or nuts. Flour, often lightly sprinkled (dusted) on a work surface before rolling out a dough to prevent it from sticking. Likewise, after greasing a pan, lightly dust with flour to prevent the baked good from sticking to the pan and making it hard to remove. Confectioners (powdered or icing) sugar or cocoa powder lightly sprinkled on cakes, pastries and confections to enhance their appearance.

Egg Wash - A mixture consisting of beaten egg(s) (whole eggs, whites, or yolks) and a liquid (usually milk, cream, or water) that is brushed on the top of baked goods before baking to give them a glossy sheen and to aid in browning to produce a crisp outer crust. Used to keep toppings such as nuts, poppy or sesame seeds, or sugars in place while they bake or to join layers of pastry so they do not separate during baking.

Eggs - Symbolically, the egg stands for the renewal of life. Commercially, the term 'egg' refers to hen's eggs. Eggs from ducks, geese, quails, ostriches also sold, labeled accordingly. The egg consists of the thick, clear white (albumen), and a yellow yolk. The white is 87% water and 10% protein. The yolk consists of 50% water, 16% protein and 32% fat. Eggs, as well as flour, are the structural ingredients in baking.

Financiers (Friands) - (Pronounced fee-nahng-syehr) also known as Friands (meaning "dainty" or "tasty"). They are French teacakes made from a sponge-like batter of beurre noisette (brown butter), egg whites, flour, toasted ground almonds, and powdered sugar. Financiers are similar to Madeleines in that they both use a sponge-like mixture, baked in a special mold. When baked Financiers are soft and springy with a slightly domed top and a lovely golden-brown crust. The traditional Financiers are baked in rectangular molds that are said to resemble bars of gold. Another popular mold is the boat shape (barquette).

Florentines - Are round, wafer thin cookie (biscuit) made from nuts and candied fruit coated with a sugar syrup. It has a chewy, also candy-like texture that has a coating of chocolate on one side textured in a wavy pattern, made by using the tines of a fork or a pastry comb. Although the name 'Florentine' suggests they originated in Florence Italy, there is no direct evidence to support this.

Flour-once spelled 'flower'. The milled flour we buy and use today was once ground using a mortar and pestle. Milling of different grains dates back to prehistoric times and through the ages automation of the milling perfected the process. Most people think of flour in terms of "wheat" flour. When in fact flour can be ground from a variety of nuts and seeds. When used in baking flour contributes body and structure, texture and flavor to baked goods.

Foam Cakes - The category of foam cakes includes sponge, biscuit, roulades, Genoise, chiffon, angel food, meringue, and dacquoise. These cakes have a high proportion of eggs to flour and are leavened solely (except chiffon cakes) by the air beaten into whole eggs or egg whites. They contain very little, if any, fat and have a spongy texture.

Fold - A simple but crucial technique used when combining a light and airy ingredient into a heavier ingredient or mixture in such a way as each ingredient maintains its original volume. This technique must be done quickly but gently and stop 'folding' as soon as the ingredients are blended. Start by placing one quarter of the lighter mixture on top of the heavier mixture. With a rubber spatula cut down vertically through the two mixtures, sweep across the bottom, up the nearest side of the bowl, and over the top of the mixtures (go in clockwise direction). Rotate the bowl a quarter turn counter-clockwise and repeat the down-across-up-over motion. This technique commonly used to incorporate flour into a sponge cake base and adding egg whites to a cake batter.

Frangipane or Franpipani - An almond flavored pastry cream traditionally made from blanched ground almonds, butter, sugar, flour and eggs. A simpler version of frangipane uses almond paste instead of ground-blanched almonds. Frangipane is used: as fillings or toppings for pastries, tarts, and cakes.

Frosting - Americans tend to use the word 'frosting'. Other countries tend to use the word 'icing'. The name 'icing' probably has something to do with the fact that 'confectioners' or 'powdered' sugar also known as 'icing' sugar. Hence, combining icing sugar with other ingredients makes an 'icing'. The fact is that 'frosting' and 'icing' are the same thing and food writers used them interchangeably. There are numerous types of frostings (icings), both thick and thin, cooked and uncooked, starting with a simple mixture of powdered sugar and water, to beating hot sugar syrup into stiffly beaten egg whites.

Fondant Icing - Is a sugar syrup, crystallized to a smooth, creamy white mass. The fondant icing is poured or dipped for napoleons, éclairs, petite fours, and some cakes. When used, the fondant sets up into a shiny, nonstick coating. Rolled Fondant- A dough-like product consisting of confectioner's sugar combined with glucose, water, gelatin and other ingredients to achieve proper consistency. The dough is pliable enough to roll out to thin sheets that can be colored and used to decorate cakes and cookies.

Ganache - A French term referring to a smooth mixture of chopped chocolate and heavy cream. The origins of ganache believed to been invented around 1850. Some say it originated in Switzerland where used as a base for truffles: others, say ganache was invented in Paris at the Patisserie Siravdin. To make ganache, pour the boiled heavy cream over the chopped chocolate, and stir the mixture until velvety smooth.

Gelatin - Unflavored gelatin is tiny granules that are tasteless, colorless, and odorless. Used as a thickening agent but only becomes active when dissolved in hot water. Gelatin comes from two sources: collagen, which is a protein found in the connective tissue and bones of animals, and from certain algae (agar-agar).
Use the unflavored gelatin: in fillings, mousses, puddings, creams, molded desserts, marshmallows, and confections to give them shape. To use gelatin, you first need to sprinkle it over a cold liquid (about 1/4 cup (60 ml) of cold liquid for 1 envelope of gelatin) so the gelatin softens and will combine evenly and smoothly with the other ingredients in the recipe. Allow the gelatin to soften, untouched, for about 5 minutes so the granules will swell and become spongy. The softened gelatin then needs to be warmed so the gelatin granules dissolve and the proteins become activated (gelatin is completely dissolved at 105 - 115 degrees F (41 - 46 C)). You can do this by either adding the softened gelatin to hot liquid, or, the softened gelatin heated in a bowl over simmering water until it dissolves. (To check to see if the gelatin has completely dissolved, dip a spoon into the gelatin and check to see that there are un-melted crystals.) Just make sure the gelatin does not boil. Temperatures above 150 degrees F (66 degrees C) will cause the gelatin to break down and will not solidify when cooled.
Cool the gelatin mixture in the refrigerator until it sets and becomes jelly-like (this will take about 4 - 6 hours or overnight). Do not freeze as the gelatin will crystallize and separate. If you want to add fruit to the gelatin mixture, first let the gelatin set to the consistency of egg whites. Letting the gelatin set to this stage will prevent the fruit from sinking to the bottom of your bowl. If you wanted to layer two different colored gelees; pour your first layer into your serving bowl, chill the gelee to the point where it is almost set (will still be a little sticky), and then add your next layer.
Unflavored gelatin found in the baking section of grocery stores. Packaged in small boxes, four paper envelopes of powdered gelatin. Each 1/4-ounce (7 grams) (scant tablespoon) envelope of gelatin will jell about 2 cups (480 ml) of liquid.

Unflavored Gelatin is also available in clear, paper-thin leaves (or sheets). Professionals use this type of gelatin as it gives a smoother and clearer consistency. You need to soak the sheets in cold water for about 15 to 20 minutes until it looks like wet plastic wrap. The sheets heated until liquefied. The two types of gelatin can be interchanged. Four sheets of leaf gelatin equal one envelope (7 grams) (1 tablespoon) of powdered gelatin.

Genoise - Named after its place of origin, Genoa Italy, it is a type of light and airy sponge-like cake. Different from a sponge cake in that the eggs are beaten whole and a small amount of melted butter is added. This makes it more tender and flavorful but is less sweet than a regular sponge cake.

Glace (Pronounced Glah-SAY) - French for glazed, crystallized or candied. Glace cherries or pineapple are usually purchased prepared and is a process whereby the fruit is dipped several times in a dense sugar syrup. Left to dry and crystallize and should be stored in a cool, dry place. Commonly used in confectionery and pastry.

Glaze - Defined as a thin liquid sweet coating that adds shine and color to pastries. Also used as a protective coating to prevent the fruit on the top of tarts from drying out and looking unattractive. Apricot jam, raspberry preserves, red currant jelly, lightly beaten egg whites, and chocolate make good glazes.

Icing - Americans tend to use the word 'frosting'. Other countries tend to use the word 'icing'. The name 'icing' probably has something to do with the fact that 'confectioners' or 'powdered' sugar known as 'icing' sugar. Hence, combining icing sugar with other ingredients makes an 'icing'. The fact is that 'frosting' and 'icing' are the same thing and food writers used them interchangeably. There are numerous types of frostings (icings), both thick and thin, cooked and uncooked, starting with a simple mixture of powdered sugar and water, to beating hot sugar syrup into stiffly beaten egg whites.

Jam or Preserves - are similar in that they are both a cooked combination of fruit and sugar (and sometimes pectin). The difference being that preserves still contain chunks of fruit, whereas jam is more like a fruit puree.

Knead-Pronounced (NEED) - A technique used in both bread making and pastries to combine and work a dough or mixture into a smooth and pliable mass. In bread making, kneading the dough also develops the gluten strands in the flour so it adequately holds in the gases released by the leaveners (yeast) to produce a bread with good volume and texture. This technique done by hand, using the press-fold-turn action, or using a food processor or electric mixer with the dough hook.

Lemon Curd - Is an English specialty traditionally served with scones at afternoon tea. It is a soft, thick, spreadable cooked cream that contains eggs, sugar, lemon juice, lemon zest, and unsalted butter. Cook the ingredient together over a stovetop until thick, and then cooled. The curd will continue to thicken as it cools.

Lemons - A member of the citrus family (citrus limon) the lemon is an oval or oblong-shaped bright yellow fruit ranging in size from 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) with a bulge at the blossom end. When choosing lemons look for ones that are fragrant with brightly colored oily yellow skin, no green spots or blemishes, firm, plump, and heavy for their size. Avoid lemons that have blemishes, soft spots, or are hard and wrinkled.

Linzer torte - one of Austria's most famous desserts. Believed to have originated from the City of Linz, written recipes began to appear in the early 1700s. Traditionally this torte consisted of a crust made with flour, ground nuts (traditionally almonds), sugar, egg yolks, spices and lemon zest that was filled with preserves (traditionally black currant) and then topped with a lattice crust.

Liqueurs - Pronounced lih-KUHR or lih-KYOOR also known as crèmes. Liqueurs are a sweet alcoholic spirit (brandy, rum or whiskey) infused with a natural flavoring (fruit, herb, flower, nut, chocolate, spice, coffee, or seed). Avoid inferior liqueurs use artificial flavorings. The flavors of liqueurs are quite pronounced and the rule of thumb is to use 1 to 2 tablespoons per cup of batter or sauce, as you do not want the liqueur to overpower the rest of the flavors in the dessert. It is a good idea to match the liqueur to the other ingredients in the dessert so the flavors match. Liqueurs can be served as an after-dinner drink, used in desserts, creams, fillings, mousses, soufflés, sauces, and in macerating fruit. Below is table listings some popular liqueurs and their flavors. Also, see eau-de-vie and brandy.

Flavor Liqueur

  • Almonds Amaretto (Italy) and crème d'amandes
  • Anise, Anisette Anis (Spain), Anise (France), Pernod (France), Pastis (France)
  • Apricot Crème d'abricot (France)
  • Banana Crème de banane (France)
  • Cherry Maraschino (Italy), Kirsch or Kirschwaser (Germany), Crème de Cerise
  • Chocolate Crème de cacao (France)
  • Coffee Kahlua (Mexico), Tia Maria (Jamaica), Irish Cream (Ireland)
  • Currant, black Crème de cassis (France)
  • Hazelnut Frangelico (Italy), Noisette (France)
  • Melon Midori (Japan)
  • Orange Cointreau (France), Grand Marnier France), Triple Sec (France)
  • Pear Poire Williams (France, Switzerland)
  • Peppermint/Mint Crème de menthe (France), peppermint schnapps
  • Pineapple Crème d'ananas
  • Plum prunelle (France) ; sloe gin (US and Britain)
  • Vanilla Beans Crème de vanille (France)
  • Walnut Nocello, Nocino, Nocciole (Italy)
  • Herbs, Flowers, Berries Chartreuse (France) - herbs, Benedictine (France) - herbs, spices and citrus peel, Drambuie (Scotland) - whisky, honey & herbs


Madeleines - Made famous by Marcel Proust in his novel 'Remembrance of Things Past'. A combination of butter, sugar, eggs, flour, and traditionally flavored with lemon or orange flower water, these small petit fours sec are often times dipped in tea or coffee. Instantly recognizable by their classic shell shape which is achieved by pouring the batter into special oval shaped molds with ribbed indentation.

Mascarpone - Pronounced mas-kahr-POH-nay. A soft unripen cheese that belongs to the cream cheese family. It comes from Switzerland and Italy and is a thick, buttery-rich, sweet and velvety, ivory-colored cheese produced from cow's milk that has the texture of clotted or sour cream. Its delicate and mild flavor is great with fresh fruit, known for its use in Tiramisu. Produced mainly in the fall and winter, sold in plastic 8-ounce tubs and found in specialty food stores and in the deli section of some grocery stores.

Meringue - Pronounced muh-RANG. Simply a beaten mixture of egg whites and sugar (sometimes with cream of tartar), that are baked in a slow oven to produce a delicately crisp, white confection that seems to literally melt in your mouth. There are two types of meringue; soft and hard. The difference between the two is the amount of sugar added to the egg whites. Soft meringue: made with only a small amount of sugar. The whites and sugar beaten only to the soft peak stage and is then used as a topping for pies and cakes, puddings, mousses, and the famous Baked Alaska. The meringue baked until the peaks brown and the valleys lightly brown.
Hard meringue has a larger proportion of sugar to egg whites than a soft meringue. Hard meringues: beaten until stiff peaks form. The meringue is then placed in a piping bag and piped into various shapes; a round shape with a depression in the center so the baked meringue can be filled with fruit, cream, custard, ice cream, chocolate, or into hearts, shells, disks, mushrooms, and cookies.
When making a meringue the egg whites should be at room temperature and free of any specks of egg yolk. Make sure the bowl and beaters are clean and free of grease to obtain maximum volume. Superfine sugar makes for a smoother meringue as it is easier for the sugar to dissolve. To make your own take granulated white sugar and process in your food processor until very fine (about 30 seconds). Adding the sugar gradually to the egg whites ensures that the sugar completely dissolves and does not produce a gritty meringue. A test to see if the meringue is done is to rub a little of the meringue between your thumb and index finger. It should be smooth, not gritty. If it feels gritty, the sugar has not fully dissolved so keep beating until it feels smooth between your fingers. Cream of tartar is tartaric acid and is a fine white crystalline acid salt, which is a by-product of the wine making industry. Used in the whipping of egg whites to stabilize them and allow them to reach maximum volume. Hard meringues baked slowly in the oven to allow the evaporation of the moisture out of the meringues slowly. If the oven temperature is too high, the outside of the meringue will dry and set too quickly. You will end up with the inside of the meringue being chewy, sticky, instead of dry, crisp, and crunchy. You will also notice the outside of the meringue separates from the inside. If you make meringues on a rainy or humid day, you will probably have to bake the meringues longer than on a dry day. If your meringue starts to brown, the oven temperature is too high causing the sugar to caramelize. To prevent cracking of the meringues, do not open the oven door during the first half to three quarters of the baking time.

Milk Chocolate - contains chocolate liquor, cocoa butter, vanilla, milk solids, and lecithin. Milk chocolate must contain 10% chocolate liquor, 3.7% milk fats, and 12% milk solids. It contains less chocolate liquor than dark chocolate and therefore does not have as pronounced a chocolate flavor. The quality of milk chocolate varies from brand to brand with European brands usually of higher quality. The better brands contain a higher percentage of cocoa liquor. Look for brands that contain pure ingredients, no artificial flavorings. European milk chocolate generally contains condensed milk, whereas American and British milk chocolate contains a milk and sugar mixture.

Mixing - A technique for blending, stirring, or combining two or more ingredients until they are evenly distributed throughout the mixture. Use an electric mixer with paddle attachment, blender, food processor, wooden spoon, or whisk.

Molasses - There are two types of molasses generally used in making gingerbread: light and dark. Light molasses, used in this recipe, comes from the first boiling of the sugar syrup and is lighter in flavor and color than the dark molasses. Dark molasses comes from the second boiling and is darker in color with a more robust flavor. Molasses usually labeled as "sulphured" or "unsulphured" depending on whether Sulphur was used in the processing. The unsulphured molasses is lighter in color and tends to have a nicer flavor. Molasses used in baked goods to add color, moistness and flavor. Note: To prevent the molasses from sticking to the measuring cup, first spray the cup with a nonstick vegetable spray.

Mousse - Is a French word that means 'froth' or 'foam'. Defined as a rich, light and fluffy, creamy and smooth confection that can be sweet or savory, and hot or cold. Sweet mousses usually served cold and made with chocolate or fruit purées (gelatin used to set the mousse). Chocolate mousse usually made with egg yolks (and sometimes-unsalted butter), whereas lighter fruit mousses contain egg whites and cream.

Muffin - From the French word moufflet, meaning a soft bread. There are two types of muffins: English and American. English Muffins made from a yeast dough: formed into rounds, cooked on a griddle, toasted, split and buttered. They are relatively flat with a golden-brown top and bottom and a light, spongy interior. American quick bread Muffins made with a chemical leavening agent: baking powder or baking soda, and are a cross between a cake and a bread (See Quick Breads).

Nuts - Technically, acorns, chestnuts and hazelnuts are the only "true" nuts. Almonds, Brazils, cashews, macadamias, peanuts, pecans, pinenuts, pistachios and walnuts are "seeds". The term "nut" now been broadened to include the seeds. Nuts are the edible fruit from trees or bushes enclosed in a shell, of varying degrees of hardness, which serves as a protective coating from predators. Inside the shell of each nut is one edible kernel. The outer skin of the nut is usually bitter removed by blanching or toasting. Toasting the nuts in the oven also enhances the nut's buttery flavor and gives them a golden color with added crunch.

Oats - A cereal grain that is rich and flavorful and comes in many forms. Very popular in Northern Europe, Scotland and Ireland. Oats consumed by humans are cleaned, toasted, and hulled to become what we call oat groats. The oat groats are then steamed and flattened, become rolled oats or old-fashioned oats. They take about 15 minutes to cook. Old-fashioned rolled oats are not to be confused with quick-cooking rolled oats. These oats are cut into pieces before being steamed and rolled into thinner flakes. They cook quickly, about 5 minutes, but their flavor and texture are a little different from old-fashioned rolled oats. There is another type of oats, called steel-cut oatmeal. Steel-cut means the oats are 'cut' not 'rolled', so instead of flakes of oats you have tiny hard bits of golden oatmeal (think of mini rice particles).

Oranges - Native to China and SE Asia but are now grown in temperate climates throughout the world. There are two types of oranges, the sweet and the bitter. Bitter oranges, the Seville and Bergamot being the most popular, are not eaten raw so you will not see them in stores. They have a dry pulp, thick rind, are sour tasting and are grown and valued for their peel. The peels make marmalades, jams and jellies. The oils from the peel used in making liqueurs, such as Grand Marnier and Cointreau.
The Sweet Orange is what you see in grocery stores. The most popular are the Navel, Valencia and the Blood Orange. Their yellow to orange colored rind encloses a juicy segmented pulp that can range in flavor from sweet to tart. Used to make orange juice, eaten out of hand, and in cooking and baking. Oranges are available year-round, depending on the variety. Some are seedless while others have seeds, their size can range from small to softball size, and their rind can be thin to thick. The blood orange is different in that it has a very distinctive red colored flesh and juice with a flavor that makes you think of berries. Some consider it the world's finest dessert orange.
When choosing oranges look for ones that are heavy for their size with no mold or soft spots. Because vegetable dye is sprayed on some oranges, color is not a good indicator of quality. The color of the orange depends on the weather and some green is natural. Rough brown spots (called russeting) does not affect flavor or quality. Oranges in the United States are graded either US Fancy (the best) or US No. 1.

Pate Brisee - Pronounced paht bree-ZAY. A French short crust pastry dough made from a mixture of flour, a little sugar, salt, butter, and ice water. It has a high ratio of fat to flour that gives the pastry its crumbly texture and buttery flavor. Used in both sweet and savory pastries.

Pavlova - In the 1930's an Australian chef, Herbert Sachse, invented this dessert when a request for a soft meringue cake for afternoon tea at the hotel where he worked. This meringue cake, with its unusual soft sweet marshmallow center and light, delicate, and crisp crust, produced by folding a little vinegar and cornstarch (corn flour) into the egg whites and sugar mixture once they are stiffly beaten. When cooled, softly whipped cream and fresh fruit (kiwi, raspberries, strawberries, and passion fruit) mounded in the center of the meringue. The name, Pavlova, chosen in honor of the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova, who visited Australia in the 1920s. Although Australia credited with inventing this dessert, New Zealand also lays claim to it as a similar dessert served in that country around the same time.

Piping - A technique where you first place an ingredient or mixture (frosting, buttercream, whipped cream, meringue, melted chocolate, cake or cookie batters, etc.) into a pastry bag fitted with a pastry tip, and then pipe this mixture into the desired sizes and shapes or decorative designs.
When piping, first place the filling (frosting, meringue, etc.) into the wide end of a conical-shaped pastry bag that has been fitted at the narrow end with a pastry tip. To do this; fold down the wide end of the pastry bag to create a cuff. Fill the bag about halfway with the filling, making sure you do not fill the bag too much or it will leak out when it is closed. Once sufficiently filled, unfold the cuff and gently press the filling until it is down at the tip end. Close the bag by twisting just above the filling to release any trapped air. To begin piping, hold the bag, with the hand you write with, just above where you twisted it, and, with your other hand, support the bag just above the pastry tip. Tilt the bag at a 45-degree angle, and with steady even pressure, force the filling out of the bag to create your shape or design. Be patience with this technique, as this may take a little practice to learn how to hold the bag properly and how to pipe with an even steady pressure.

Popovers - Similar to Yorkshire pudding and can be sweet or savory. Has a muffin-shape with a crisp brown outside and moist, almost hollow inside. The thin batter contains no chemical leaveners and as the batter bakes, it creates steam that leavens the bread. Baked in muffins tins or a 'popover' pan its name comes from the fact that the batter "pops over" the sides of the pan as it bakes.

Pound Cake - Originated several centuries ago in England from yeast leavened bread-like cakes. The name comes from the fact that the original pound cakes contained one pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. No leaveners were used other than the air whipped into the batter. These cakes were rich and dense. By the mid-1800, pound cake recipes began to deviate slightly from the original formula to make a lighter cake. Some recipes even contained a liquid, such as alcohol or rose water. It was not until the 20th century that the addition of artificial leaveners (baking powder/soda). Today, pound cakes use different proportions of the same ingredients as the original formula to produce a lighter cake.

Preserves or Jam - Are similar in that they are both a cooked combination of fruit and sugar (and sometimes pectin). The difference being that preserves still contain chunks of fruit, whereas jam is more like a fruit puree.

Quick Breads - A North American term used to describe a light and moist baked good that is "quick" to make. The dry ingredients mixed separately, then combined with the liquid ingredients, and baked. Leavened using a chemical leavening agent (baking powder/soda not yeast) that does not require fermentation and involves little or no kneading. Quick breads baked as batters include: muffins, coffee cakes, pancakes, popovers, loaves. Alternatively, baked as a dough: scones and biscuits.

Ribbon Stage - A baking term used to describe the consistency or texture of an egg and sugar batter when beaten long enough to become very thick and pale-colored (this usually takes upwards of 5 minutes). To test, raise the beaters or whisk, and if the batter slowly falls back into the bowl in a 'ribbon-like' pattern, the batter is sufficiently beaten. Once the batter falls into the bowl, it should stay on the surface for a few seconds before disappearing back into the batter.

Ricotta - Pronounced rih-KAHT-TUH and means "recooked". It is an Italian cottage cheese made from the whey (watery residue from making other cheeses) that is cooked once again to produce a mild sweet tasting, soft, yet granular white cheese.

Roulade - The name given to a light and delicate sponge cake, baked in a sheet pan (jellyroll pan) and rolled up in a towel while still warm. Once cooled, it is unrolled and filled with whipped cream, ganache, buttercream, lemon curd, fruit, fruit purees, nuts, etc. and then rolled. Dusted with confectioners’ sugar or frosted with whipped cream, buttercream, ganache, etc. Used to make the classic Buche de Noel.

Royal Icing - Traditionally used to ice: Wedding and Christmas cakes, consists of powdered (icing) sugar, egg whites or meringue powder and water. (If you are worried about salmonella, use the royal icing recipe that contains meringue powder, not raw egg whites.) This pure white icing when dry produces a perfectly flat, smooth and matte hard surface that makes it ideal for frosting cakes and cookies. As well as, for intricate piping of decorations (flowers, borders, lettering, etc.) You may have to adjust the water and sugar used depending on whether you are using the icing for decorations (fine lines, outlines, etc. needs a thinner icing) or to coat cakes or cookies (thicker icing).

Scant - Recipes commonly use the term "a scant teaspoon or cup" of an ingredient. Scant means "just barely".

Scone - Pronounced "skon" or "skoan”. Believed to have originated in Scotland, closely related to the griddle-baked flatbread, known as bannock. First made with oats, shaped into a round, scored into triangles, and cooked on a griddle either over an open fire or on top of the stove. The scone's origins are unclear; some saying the name comes from the crowning location of the Kings of Scotland: The Stone (Scone) of Destiny. Others believe the name derived from the Dutch word "schoonbrot" or "sconbrot" meaning 'white bread' or 'beautiful bread'. This small cake, similar to a biscuit, has a crisp golden crust with a soft white interior.

Scoring - To lightly mark or make shallow cuts into the top surface of pastries (pies and shortbreads) or breads with a sharp knife or prongs of a fork. Do not cut all the way through the pastry or bread. Scoring, used both for decorative purposes, and as a way for gases to escape during baking.

Scrape Down - This term used so often in baking recipes that food writers assume the meaning is obvious. To 'scrape down' defined as taking a rubber spatula or pastry scraper and running it around the inside surface of a mixing bowl containing batter or dough that has just been mixed. This batter or dough placed back into the bottom of the bowl with the rest of the batter. To make sure all the ingredients of the batter are fully incorporated.

Semi-sweet Chocolate - Dark chocolate is another name used to describe any sweetened chocolate that does not contain milk solids i.e. extra-bittersweet, bittersweet, and semi-sweet. In general, European dark chocolate refers to bittersweet, while American dark chocolate refers to semi-sweet. The two chocolates used interchangeably. However, flavor, texture, and appearance of the finished product may change depending on the type and quality of chocolate used. Bittersweet and semi-sweet chocolates contain at least 35% chocolate liquor in North America and 43% in Britain. The best chocolates can contain 65-70% chocolate liquor. The higher the content of chocolate liquor, the richer and more flavorful the chocolate. Bittersweet chocolate generally has a stronger chocolate flavor. Semi-sweet chocolate generally contains more sugar than bittersweet. However, because the amount of sugar this chocolate contains is not regulated, what one manufacturer calls bittersweet, another manufacturer may call semi-sweet.

Shortbreads - Scottish in origin, this rich, tender and crumbly straw-colored biscuit (cookie) once only served during Christmas and New Year's Eve (Hogmanay). The classic proportions of one-part sugar to two parts butter to three parts flour mixed and placed in a lightly floured 8 inch (20 cm) round wooden mold carved with a thistle. The dough-filled mold then inverted onto a baking sheet, released from the mold, and baked in a slow oven. Once baked, the shortbread cut into wedges given the name "petticoat tails". This name derived because the shape of the shortbread wedges was similar to the bell-hoop petticoats worn by court women in the 12th century.

Sift or Sifting - A technique used to combine dry ingredients so the mixture has a uniform consistency. At the same time, it also aerates the ingredients and breaks up any large lumps that may have resulted when the dry ingredient(s) (confectioners’ sugar, cocoa powder, cornstarch, or flour) was in storage. Sifting does increase the volume so be sure to read your recipe's instructions before sifting. If your recipe states "1 cup of sifted all-purpose flour" this means you sift the flour before measuring it. However, if your recipes states “1 cup of all-purpose flour, sifted" this means you measure the flour first, then sift it. Sifting accomplished using a finely woven meshed strainer; sieve, sifter or even a wire whisk.

Sponge Cake - A light and airy cake that contains three basic ingredients: room temperature eggs, sugar, and flour, leavened solely by the air beaten into the eggs. Contains no fat. A very versatile cake flavored with extracts, nuts, citrus zests, liqueurs and baked in round cake pans or else a sheet pan. Eaten plain or filled with whipped cream, buttercream, jam or preserves, fruit, fruit purees, nuts, chocolate, etc.

Stiff, but not dry - A culinary term commonly used to describe egg whites that have been beaten by hand (using a wire whisk) or in an electric mixer, with the whisk attachment, until they have formed glossy firm peaks that are still moist but not too finely grained. Adding a little cream of tartar and white sugar when beating egg whites helps them to reach and hold their maximum volume, without becoming too dry.

Streusel - From the German word 'streuen' means 'to sprinkle' or 'to scatter'. Originally made to use as a topping for the German made 'Streusel Kuchen'. Streusels now used as a topping for cakes, coffee cakes, Danish pastries, muffins, pies, sweet breads, and tarts. Streusel is a crumbly topping containing a mixture of butter, flour, and sugar. Spices, chopped nuts, and oats added. Sprinkle the mixture over the top of baked goods before placed in the oven. It provides a crisp crust that adds both taste and texture to baked goods.

Sugar - The refined table sugar we now consider a staple was once so rare and expensive, named: "white gold". Sugar cane, which was the first source of sugar, is a perennial grass that originated in Asia but now grown in tropical and subtropical areas. (Before the arrival of sugar cane, honey and fruit were the only sweeteners.) During the Napoleonic war, when the supply of cane sugar was cut off, the development of an alternative source of sugar was discovered, beets. When using sugar in baking, its role is not only as a sweetener, it also adds volume, tenderness, texture, color, and acts as a preservative.

Sugar or Simple Syrup - A combination of sugar and water that is cooked over low heat until the sugar dissolves (and liquid is clear) and then boiled for about 1 minute. The density can vary from heavy (one-part sugar to one part water), medium (one part sugar to two parts water), to light (one part sugar to three parts water) depending on how the sugar syrup is to be used. Sugar syrups are used to soak cakes and pastries (called a "soaking syrup" and a flavoring can be added such as extracts, juices or liqueurs), added to fondants to dilute them, used to poach fruit, as a glaze, added to frostings and sorbets, and used in confectionery.

Tart - Defined as a single-layered base of pastry (plain or puff) with a sweet or savory filling baked in either a shallow tart pan that has straight, fluted sides and a removable bottom or a metal tart ring placed on a baking sheet. Remove the tart from the tart pan or ring before serving. Broadly, the term 'tart' encompasses flans, quiches, and pies. Depending on the type of tart made they can be served as appetizers, entrées or desserts. Their size ranges from bite-size (hors d'oeuvre), individual-size (tartlet) to full-size (tart).

To Temper or Tempering - This term used in the cooking process, when one or two dairy ingredients are stabilized without changing its characteristics. This technique prevents the curdling of egg yolks by bringing the temperatures of the two liquids closer together. Add the hot mixture to the fragile dairy ingredients slowly, while whisking a few ladles at a time. Wisk the hot liquid quickly so not to curdle the mixture until combined. Then continue to follow the recipe instructions to add the tempered liquid back into the rest of the hot liquid and continue the cooking process.

To Whisk or Whisking - A technique to rapidly beat or whip as much air (volume) as possible into a mixture or one ingredient (usually heavy cream or egg whites). Accomplish by using a wire whisk or electric mixer. A whisk is made of several wires, looped together into a teardrop shape and attached to a wooden or stainless-steel handle. They come in many different sizes and shapes with the wires of various amounts, thicknesses and flexibilities. Use whisks to whip, blend, or stir ingredient(s).

Torte - German for cake and refers to both a multi-layered cake filled with buttercream, jam, or cream and to a rich, moist, and dense single-layered cake. They contain very little or no flour. Groundnuts or breadcrumbs used, along with butter, sugar, and flavorings. Americans apply the word "Torte" to any type of European-style cake that contains little or no flour, although sometimes containing groundnuts or breadcrumbs.

Unsweetened Chocolate - Also called baking, plain or bitter chocolate. This is chocolate in its rawest form. The chocolate liquor refined, and contains 50-55% cocoa butter. The quality of the chocolate determined by the type of cocoa beans used and processed. Since no sugar added to the chocolate, it has a strong, bitter taste that is used in cooking and baking but is never eaten out of hand. Unsweetened chocolate, if well wrapped and stored in a cool dry place with good air circulation, will keep several years.

Vanilla - Pure vanilla, with its wonderful aromatic flavor, is the most widely used flavoring in pastries, confections, and other desserts. It is the second most expensive spice in the world, next to saffron, and as much as flavor chemists try with the glycoside found in the sapwood of certain conifers or from coal extracts, the cheaper synthetic vanillas on the market today do not come close to competing with pure vanilla. Vanilla is the fruit of a thick green orchid vine (v. planifolia) that grows wild on the edge of the Mexican tropical forests. Vanilla sold in different forms: extract and essence, pods (beans), powdered, and vanilla sugar.

Whip or Whipping - A mixing technique used to incorporate air into an ingredient or mixture (i.e. egg whites, heavy cream) to increase its volume and make it light and fluffy. Vigorously beat in a circular motion using a wire whisk or electric mixer. Egg whites are often whipped and then added to cake batters to make them less dense so they have more volume when baked. Whipped heavy cream added to custards or sauces to make them lighter.

White Chocolate - Officially, one cannot call white chocolate: "chocolate" because it does not contain chocolate liquor. Good white chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, milk solids, vanilla, and lecithin. When buying white chocolate that it contains cocoa butter as some inferior brands contain vegetable fat. White chocolate is ivory-colored (white chocolate made with vegetable fat is white-colored) and is rich and creamy. Its sweet and subtle flavor complements other ingredients in baking.

Yeast - The word "yeast" comes from the Sanskrit 'yas' meaning, "to seethe or boil". Yeast is a living organism and is in the air around us. It is a member of the fungus family and is a single-celled fungus of which there are about 160 different species. The two forms of baker's yeast are; compressed cakes (also called fresh yeast) and dehydrated granules (dry yeast). There are two types of dry yeast: regular active dry and rapid-rise.

Zest - The outer rind of citrus fruit (lemons, limes, oranges, etc.) that contains the fruit's flavor and perfume. This outer rind, of varying thickness and graininess, can have either a bumpy or a smooth glossy texture. Cold fruit with a thick, bumpy texture yields the most zest. Remove the rind (zest) using a knife, vegetable peeler, grater or zester depending on its use. Used in desserts for its flavor as well as for garnishing. The zest is most aromatic and flavorful when first removed, so use immediately. Inside the outer rind is a white membrane (pith) that is very bitter, and not used as it is inedible.